Comparison of Lamiaceae medicinal uses in eastern Morocco and eastern Andalusia and in Ibn al-Baytar's Compendium of Simple Medicaments (13th century CE)

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Ethnopharmacology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep Comparison of Lamiaceae medicinal uses in eastern Morocco and eastern Andalusia and in Ibn al-Baytar's Compendium of Simple Medicaments (13th century CE) Asmae El-Gharbaoui a , Guillermo Benítez a,⁎ , M. Reyes González-Tejero a , Joaquín Molero-Mesa a , Abderrahmane Merzouki b a Department of Botany, University of Granada, Campus Universitario de Cartuja, 18071 Granada, Spain b Flora research, Etnobotany and Ethnopharmacology. Laboratory of Applied Botany, Faculty of Sciences, University Abdelmalek Essaâdi, BP 2121, Tétouan 93000, Morocco ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Ethnomedicine Labiatae Ibn al-Baytar Morocco Andalusia Historical studies on medicinal plants ABSTRACT Ethnopharmacological relevance: Transmission of traditional knowledge over time and across culturally and historically related territories is an important topic in ethnopharmacology. Here, we contribute to this knowledge by analysing data on medicinal uses in two neighbouring areas of the Western Mediterranean in relation to a historical text that has been scarcely mentioned in historical studies despite its interest. Aim of the study: This paper discusses the sharing of popular knowledge on the medicinal uses of plants between eastern Morocco and eastern Andalusia (Spain), focusing on one of the most useful plant families in the Mediterranean area: Lamiaceae. Moreover, we used the classical work of Ibn al-Baytar (13th century CE) The Compendium of Simple Medicaments and Foods as a basis to contrast the possible link of this information, analysing the influence of this historical text on current popular tradition of medicinal plant use in both territories. Materials and methods: For data collection, we performed ethnobotanical field research in the eastern part of Morocco, recording current medicinal uses for the Lamiaceae. In addition, we systematically reviewed the ethnobotanical literature from eastern Andalusia, developing a database. We investigated the possible historical link of the shared uses and included in this database the information from Ibn al-Baytar's Compendium.To compare the similarity and diversity of the data, we used Jaccard's similarity index. Results: Our field work provided ethnobotanical information for 14 Lamiaceae species with 95 medicinal uses, serving to treat 13 different pathological groups. Of the total uses recorded in Morocco, 30.5% were shared by eastern Andalusia and found in Ibn al-Baytar's work. There was a higher similarity when comparing current uses of the geographically close territories of eastern Morocco and eastern Andalucía (64%) than for eastern Morocco and this historical text (43%). On the other hand, coincidences between current uses in eastern Andalusia and the ones related in the Compendium are lower, 28%. Conclusions: The coincidence of the current ethnobotanical knowledge in the two territories is high for the Lamiaceae. Probably the shared historical background, recent exchanges, information flow, and the influence of the historical herbal texts have influenced this coincidence. In this sense, there is a high plant-use overlap between Ibn al-Baytar's text and both territories: nearly half of the uses currently shared by eastern Morocco and eastern Andalusia were included in the Compendium and are related to this period of Islamic medicine, indicating a high level of preservation in the knowledge of plant usage. The study of 14 species of Lamiaceae suggests that this classical codex, which includes a high number of medicinal plants and uses, constitutes a valuable bibliographical source for comparing ancient and modern applications of plants. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2017.03.014 Received 10 October 2016; Received in revised form 10 March 2017; Accepted 11 March 2017 ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. El-Gharbaoui), [email protected] (G. Benítez), [email protected] (M.R. González-Tejero), [email protected] (J. Molero-Mesa), [email protected] (A. Merzouki). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 202 (2017) 208–224 Available online 18 March 2017 0378-8741/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. MARK 1. Introduction 1.1. Historical studies on medicinal plants The need for an interdisciplinary approach to understand the relationship between plants and human societies has been argued many times (Balick and Cox, 1996;Heinrich et al., 2006;Leonti, 2011). The study of the knowledge transmission regarding drugs and materia medica from native areas through history is fundamental for ethnopharmacological research (Touwaide and Appetiti, 2013). Knowledge from written tradition cannot simply be taken from any point in history without checking its antecedents. Transmission or, conversely, loss of knowledge as well as the development of new knowledge carry important information for ethnopharmacology, helping to optimise the therapeutic uses of the available resources among populations. The relevance of the historical methods in the context of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology has been highlighted (Heinrich et al., 2006;Leonti et al., 2009,2010), and historical studies dealing with the link of the traditional plant uses have recently been developed. For example, Leonti et al (2010) argued that one of five plant uses from the modern ethnobotanical literature in Campania comes directly from Matthioli's Materia Medica.Pollio et al. (2008) compared Hippocrates’medicinal uses and contemporary ones throughout the Mediterranean region for the genus Ruta in order to analyse their continuity from the ancient antiquity to the present. Vos (2010) stated: “the written historical record becomes increasingly important, not only for information about potential medicines but to address issues of ownership and intellectual property rights for traditional medical knowledge”. To provide a context for this work, we should mention that in the Iberian Peninsula the first written documents on traditional knowledge came from historical figures such as Strabo (64 or 63 BCE–c. 24 CE) or Collumela (4-c. 70 CE) (Pardo-de-Santayana et al., 2014). From 711 to 1492 CE, the Muslims dominated the areas previously known by the Roman name Hispania, and the territory was named “Al-Andalus”.It occupied a variable number of territories of Spain and Portugal, leaving a vast legacy in culture and knowledge reflected by the fact that nearly 8% of Spanish words are of Arabic origin (Quintana and Mora, 2002). During this period, the Spanish-Muslim agronomists, botanists, and physicians expanded their therapeutic arsenal, developing vast knowledge on medicinal plants and employing a large number of species. This time of advancement for medicine was shaped by names such as Ibn Zhur (1094–1162 CE), Averroes (1126–1198 CE), Maimonides (c.1138–1204 CE) or Ibn al-Baytar. The so-called “Andalusian Agricultural School”(10th to 15th centuries) was analysed by Hernandez-Bermejo and García (2000), considering it “an unknown world heritage”. One of the most important works from this time is Ibn alBaytar's Kitab al-Yami' li-mufradat al-adwiya wa-l.-aghdiya (the Compendium of Simple Medicaments and Foods, hereafter the Compendium). 1.2. Ibn al-Baytar, an overview of his life and work “Diya al-Din Abu Muhammad Abdullah Ibn Ahmed Ibn al-Baytar”, hereafter referred to as “Ibn al-Baytar”, was a physician, pharmacologist and botanist, probably born in Benalmádena (Malaga, Spain) in 1197 CE. Called “the Spanish Dioscorides”by the historian Menéndez Pelayo, he was probably the foremost botanist among the Moors of this age (Álvarez-de-Morales, 2008). He studied the works of Dioscorides and Galen as well as those from the main physicians from Persia, eastern Arabia, and Al-Andalus. He focused on botany and pharmacology as the complementary disciplines for medicine (Cabo-González, 1999). He has also been recognized as the first author to give a written description of distillation and essential oils (Pavela, 2015). Although his biography is not completely clear, it is thought that in 1219, after his studies, he left Malaga to travel the Islamic world to collect plants, even reaching Syria, Anatolia, Palestine, and Arabia. He died in Damascus in 1248 AD, leaving a large collection of botanical and pharmacological works (Cabo-González, 1997). The most important, the Compendium, is one of the major works in Arabic on this issue (Álvarez-de-Morales, 1986). It is considered a pharmacopoeia where some 1400 simple medicaments and foods are described and alphabetically listed, mostly medicinal plants, but also animal and mineral derivatives. To write the work, apart from including his own observations, he consulted about 150 works from previous Arab authors and 20 Greek ones (McNeil, n/d, ). The value of the work is manifold: he added 300–400 new simple medicaments to the previous pharmacological works, systematized the discoveries of earlier Arabs, and gave plant names in different languages (Arabic, Persian, Indian, Greek, Latin, and Romance languages) (Álvarez-de-Morales, 1986; Navarro, 1997). Some of the studies on his life and work include Álvarez-deMorales, (1986, 2008),Cabo-González (1997),Carrillo and TorresPalomo (1982),Navarro (1997) and Cabo-González (1999), but a historical overview can be found in some general Islamic Medicine books (Akhmisse, 1985;Sterpellone and El sheikh, 1995;Bellakhdar, 1997; Guardi, 1999). This medical tradition, shaped in the 10th century and developed in the 11th to 12th, reached its peak in the 13th to 16th centuries and later declined during the 17th to 19th centuries (Hamarneh, 1991; Lev, 2002). Medical literature and healing methods that had been the core of traditional medicine for over a thousand years were marginalized by the advent of Western medicine in the 19th to 20th century, becoming the exclusive domain of folk medicine and traditional healers (Lev, 2002; Lev and Amar, 2000). 1.3. Modern ethnobotany in Morocco and Andalusia Ethnobotanical scientific studies in Morocco are relatively young, starting with works by Bellakhdar during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s (Bellakhdar, 1978, 1984, 1997; Bellakhdar et al., 1982, 1991). Since then, many works have appeared, with special attention to those of Boulos (1983),Kahouadji (1995),Hmammouchi (1999),Merzouki et al., (2000, 2003),Jouad et al. (2001),Eddouks et al. (2002),ElHilaly et al. (2003), and Tahraoui et al. (2007). However, only two references focus on the neglected eastern part of the country (Ziyyat et al., 1997; Fakchich and Elachouri, 2014). The bibliographic research concerning classical Arabic texts on Materia Medica, by authors from Andalusia and the Maghreb, indicate that the current Moroccan pharmacopoeia has a remarkable historical continuity with respect to the nature of the remedies: 77.7% of simple medicaments employed (including medicinal plant parts) were mentioned in the texts consulted (Bellakhdar, 1997). Similarly, modern ethnobotanical studies in Andalusia started with the work of González-Tejero (1985), pursuing a research line with several local works (Muñoz-Leza, 1989; González-Tejero, 1990; González-Tejero et al., 1995; Martínez-Lirola et al., 1996, 1997; Mesa, 1996; Triano et al., 1998; Guzmán-Tirado, 1997; FernándezOcaña, 2000; Benítez, 2009; Benítez et al., 2010a) and some comprehensive analyses (Benítez et al., 2010b, 2012), focused mainly on the eastern part of the region. As in other Iberian territories where ethnobotanical studies were undertaken during the last two decades (e.g. some of the most recent ones being Carrió and Vallès, 2012; Menendez-Baceta et al., 2012;Alarcόn et al., 2015;Rigat et al., 2015), eastern Andalusia can be now considered a region with noteworthy literature on traditional knowledge. However, even with some historical studies (Hernández-Bermejo and García, 1998, 2000), this topic still lacks in-depth studies on the origin of the current traditional knowledge on the use of plants. This research is part of a more comprehensive study comparing Morocco and Andalusia in terms of the current medicinal uses of species from several botanical families. Several classical texts were used in order to analyse the similarities between territories and the influence of classical texts in the accumulation of ethnobotanical knowledge in each territory. As the importance of the family Lamiaceae in therA. El-Gharbaoui et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 202 (2017) 208–224 209 apeutics has been highlighted many times (Heinrich, 1992; GonzálezTejero et al., 1992; Benítez et al., 2010b, 2012; Carrió and Vallès, 2012; Parada et al., 2009), we here present the most important findings regarding this group of plants. 1.4. Importance of Lamiaceae in Mediterranean traditional medicine Lamiaceae is a cosmopolitan botanical family which comprises about 186 genera and 5600 species (Morales et al., 2010), rising to 7200 according to other authors (Harley et al., 2004). It is highly represented in the Mediterranean basin, where it contains about 1000 wild species grouped in 48 genera (Morales, 2000). Of these, 293 species were listed as growing in the Iberian Peninsula (Morales, 2000), but modern treatment of some genera led to the final number of 271 species (not counting subspecies) from 37 genera (Morales et al., 2010). More than half of these occur in eastern Andalusia: 158 species in 33 genera (Blanca et al., 2009), including several species-rich genera such as Salvia,Scutellaria,Teucrium or Thymus, and some genera present disagreements in their taxonomic treatment. Northern Morocco has a total of 127 species in 24 genera (Valdés et al., 2002), while numbers for the whole country rise to 204 species in 28 genera (Fennane et al., 2007). As is commonly known, many of these species are used for as food seasonings or as medicine in many parts of the world (Heinrich, 1992). In general, members of this family are rich in essential oils contained in glands in epidermal cells, with a high variety of phenolic compounds in addition to polyphenols, tannins, iridoids, quinones, coumarins, diterpenoids, triterpenoids, saponins and, in some cases, pyridine and pyrrolidine alkaloids (Evans, 1996). The family has organoleptic properties and general antioxidant and antimicrobial activities (Kuhnt et al., 1995; Guillén and Manzanos, 1999). The importance of this family in eastern Andalusian ethnobotany has previously been highlighted (Benítez et al., 2012), being the most widely used family of plants (561 different applications for 61 species) and showing a high diversity of treated conditions (60% of total ones for this area, representing 122 of the 203 disorders noted). Similarly, it is the most important family for different circum-Mediterranean areas studied comparatively (González-Tejero et al., 2008). 1.5. Aim of the study and research questions Southern Spain and Morocco have a shared cultural past spanning more than seven centuries (Watt, 1967), but currently cultural, religious, and socio-economic distances make a clearly different lifestyle in the two territories. These differences can be also reflected on in the traditional uses of plants. While Andalusian ethnobotany seems to be quite developed with a number of publications mentioned above, the eastern part of Morocco needs more ethnobotanical field studies. The aim of this study is threefold. Firstly, we compile ethnobotanical knowledge of eastern Morocco focusing on one of the most useful plant families in the Mediterranean: the Lamiaceae. Secondly, we compare the current uses of the family species between eastern Morocco and eastern Andalusia, in order to analyse the possible links and the level of shared popular knowledge of these plants between the two neighbouring territories. For this, we undertook a literature review of the ethnobotanical works of eastern Andalusia. Moreover, given the importance of Ibn al-Baytar's works for the early development of the medicine in both territories, we used his main work on medicinal plants to establish a historical standpoint for the comparison. Therefore, the third and central aim of the study compares Lamiaceae uses for both territories using the Compendium. A precedent for this kind of comparison of three sources of information can be found in Leonti et al. (2009, 2010). Our first hypothesis is that due to the historical past and the centuries of shared culture and language, as well as a similar flora and vegetation, there must be a high overlap in plant use between these geographically close territories which are currently socio-culturally distant. A second research hypothesis is that, since Ibn al-Baytar has had a great influence on the traditional medicines of both territories, there must be a high plant-use overlap between his texts and use found in Morocco and Andalusia. In this regard, we investigate in which territory this heritage has persisted more. To test these hypotheses, we focused both the fieldwork and the bibliographical comparison on the most useful plant family in the Mediterranean area, Lamiaceae. 2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study area and ethnobotanical field methods The field study was made in eastern Morocco from April 2008 to July 2013. The study area included the districts of Driouch, Nador, Berkane, Oujda-Angad, Guercif, Taourirt, Jareda, and Figuig (Fig. 1.), covering a total area of about 82,820 km 2 and confined in the north by the Mediterranean Sea and in the east by Algeria. The main localities studied appear in Fig. 1. Eastern Morocco has a population of more than two million, but major differences can be highlighted according to the spatial distribution of the population, with the most densely inhabited areas in Nador and the northern cities. A demographic shift since the 1980s reflects the main rural to urban migrations occurring throughout the country. The territory is characterized by a mountainous region with an average precipitation from 100 to 400 mm per year and vegetation consisting mainly of typical semiarid Mediterranean plant communities. Surveys were conducted in order to preselect informants. Other conventional methods of informant location, such as the snowball method and participant observation were also followed. Surveys were focused on marketed plants in the study due to their importance for the local population. Several authors (Westermarck, 1926; Doutté, 1984; Bellakhdar et al., 1991; Bellakhdar, 1997) report that herbalists sell the Fig. 1. Map of the study area in East Morocco and the East Andalusian territories used for bibliographical comparison. Numbers 1–8: main localities for the field study. 1. Figuig, 2. Yerada, 3. Guercif, 4. Taourirt, 5. Oujda, 6. Berkhane, 7. Driouch, 8. Nador. Numbers 9–16: Andalusian territories for bibliographical comparison. 9. Martínez-Lirola (1993), 10. González-Tejero, 1989, 11. Benítez (2009), 12. Fernández-Ocaña (2000), 13. Guzmán-Tirado (1997), 14. Casado-Ponce (2003), 15. Triano et al. (1998), 16. GalánSoldevilla (1993). A. El-Gharbaoui et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 202 (2017) 208–224 210 ingredients prescribed by healers (Fkih), and add that they frequently also prescribe medicinal plants. As Bellakhdar (1989) stated, people use plants from markets for socio-economic reasons: a greater cultural identification with the herbalist, and sometimes the inability to afford modern medicine. In the surveys, we asked people if they knew medicinal plants, their use, and common names. With the informants selected, we later held open and semi-structured interviews (Alexiades and Sheldon, 1996; Cotton, 1996; Martin, 2004). Informants gave their prior verbal informed consent. No plant species, plant names or medicinal uses were suggested beforehand. Interviews were usually held individually, although later group discussions and team interviews were organized. All informants lacked academic education, as we preselected with the premise of orally acquired knowledge on medicinal plants. Interviews were made in Darija, the Moroccan Arabic dialect. A total of 153 persons were interviewed, ranging from 20 to 70 years of age (10% aged 20–30; 13% 31–40; 23% 41–50; 24% 51–60; 30% 61– 70), mostly females (56%) and living mainly in small villages. Their professions included farmers, shepherds, medicinal plants sellers (Fkih), as well as wise women (popularly known as Kablat), and those men known as wizards. The plant material was collected from our informants (i.e. dry plants from markets, most donated and others bought from our informants who were also plant sellers) in order to identify the species used. In all cases, we obtained all the needed structures for the proper identification of the species: leaves, calices, corollas, etc. Vouchers were deposited in the University of Tétouan Herbarium, and their codes are included in the results. Several floras were used to identify the plant material (Fennane et al., 1999, 2007, 2014; Valdés et al., 2002; Castroviejo, 1986–2015). 2.2. Ethnobotanical review of Andalusian works A review was made of the ethnobotanical literature for eastern Andalusia, including the provinces Granada (González-Tejero, 1985; Benítez, 2009), Almería (Martínez-Lirola, 1993), Jaén (GuzmánTirado, 1997; Fernández-Ocaña, 2000; Casado-Ponce, 2003), and Córdoba (Galán-Soldevilla, 1993; Triano et al., 1998; see Fig. 1). Most of the works consulted were performed by our research group following the ethnobotanical methods described in the previous section. Data of medicinal uses for the same species used in the study area were included in a database. 2.3. The Compendium of Simple Medicaments and Foods For the historical analysis of the ethnobotanical information gathered, we focused on a complete edition of the aforementioned Compendium by Ibn al-Baytar. We used the French edition (Leclerc, 1877–1883) with the author's comments, providing information on the correlation of the plants included (originally named in several languages by Ibn al-Baytar, e.g. Arabic, Berber, Syrian, and Latin) and their scientific and common French names, according to several previous works based on his extensive knowledge on plants used in North Africa during his lifetime. Moreover, different editions were also consulted in order to clarify some particular paragraphs, including a complete modern Arabic version of the Compendium (Ibn al-Baytar, 1992) and several partial Spanish translations (Cabo-González, 1996, 2011, 2009, 2012; Cabo-González and Merino, 2010; Navarro, 1997). 2.4. Data treatment A database was created in Microsoft Access®with information on the ethnopharmacological fieldwork data for eastern Morocco, the data reviewed for the same plants in eastern Andalusia, and the uses included for them in the work of Ibn al-Baytar. Standard classifications are a valid tool for cross-cultural comparisons (Staub et al., 2015). In the present study, conditions and their classification in pathological groups were included according to the classification of Adjanohoun et al. (1989). This categorization includes a number of conditions in the pathological group “undefined symptoms”, which can be interpreted as a bias. Some of these conditions are included in other groups in different classification such as those proposed by Staub et al. (2015): The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) by the WHO (http:// www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/) or the International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC) (http://www.who.int/ classifications/icd/adaptations/icpc2/en/). Nevertheless, we follow this classification in this research in order to standardize data with some of the previous works (González-Tejero, 1990; Martínez-Lirola, 1993; Benítez et al., 2010a) used in the ethnobotanical review. Jaccard's similarity index was generated in order to compare the similarity and diversity of the data, as some other comparative ethnobotanical analyses (González-Tejero et al., 2008; Sõukand and Pieroni, 2016) according to the formula JI CABC=( /( + − ))× 10 0 where A is the number of taxa of the sample A, B is the number of taxa of the sample B, and C is the number of taxa common to A and B. The index can range from 0 (no coincidence) to 100. It was calculated for comparing the three information sources, i.e. current eastern Moroccan ethnobotany (original fieldwork data), current eastern Andalusian ethnobotany and historical uses in both territories on the basis of The Compendium. It was generated by comparing the coincidence of the use of a certain species for any condition of each pathological group, without considering the specific condition for which the plant is used in the pathological group. In this way, we sought to avoid some of the bias regarding the different names of the conditions included in the three sources of information (see below). The main data were also presented as a Venn diagram. 2.5. Nomenclatural and taxonomical comments and bias The correlation of the current scientific names with ancient Latin, Arabic or other languages is not easy, as pointed out by many authors (Holmes, 1888; Font Quer, 1961; De Vos, 2010), including the Ibn alBaytar translator (Leclerc, 1877–1883). Moreover, all ethnopharmacological research needs to refer unambiguously to the plant species under study (Rivera et al., 2014). Some works in this issue do not include the binomial Latin name for cases in which the complete identification was inconclusive, preferring a more conservative use of the genus (De Vos, 2010). In our opinion, this correlation can be similarly more conservative using the name of the genus, even comparing the current use of some plants known in different territories, where species of a genus should not be the same due to high speciation, especially when they are used in an unspecific manner. In this sense, we preferred to include some plants with their scientific genus names only, such as Thymus, Salvia, and Lavandula, and explain those cases in the results. The species used can be related but different, as in many cases to our knowledge local people do not appear to differentiate between species of these genera for some widely known uses, and these uses can be associated with more than one species. This does not mean that there are cases of specific uses for particular species. Moreover, as the Moroccan fieldwork was focused on marketed plants and the Andalusian fieldwork on wild gathered plants (although most of the included ones are also marketed there), particular species should not always be the same, but uses can be properly compared for the genus, especially if the comparison includes classical texts where the correlation problem is evident. Two illustrative examples are that in this study we used the genus name Lavandula to designate several species from the section Lavandula (according to Suárez-Cervera and Seoane-Camba, 1986): L. latifolia,L. angustifolia,L. lanata as well as the hybrid L. x intermedia. The reason is, on the one hand, that the marketed plants in Morocco correspond to L. x intermedia, a crop plant not known in A. El-Gharbaoui et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 202 (2017) 208–224 211 the wild in Morocco and probably introduced during the French colonial period. On the other hand, the species referred to in the Andalusian literature are L. latifolia and L. lanata. Moreover, we cannot be sure of the identity of the lavender in al-Baytar's Compendium but Leclerc assigned to it the scientific names L. spica and L. officinalis, which are currently interpreted as synonyms for the accepted L. angustifolia Mill. (Morales, 2010). Therefore we established the correlation with all these names for the medicinal lavender in the bibliographical comparison, explaining the case. In the case of Thymus, the species marketed in our study area of Morocco is T. vulgaris, but in Leclerc's comments to his translation, he associated Ibn al-Baytar's uses for thyme with T. zygis, the most frequent taxon in Andalusia, as well as the one most referred to in ethnobotanical studies for this territory (currently named T. zygis ssp. gracilis). Therefore, we established the correlation considering both species. It is important to highlight that, even though Thymus is a genus with 15 taxa in eastern Andalusia (Blanca et al., 2009) and 10 in northern Morocco (Valdés et al., 2002), we included in the database Andalusian ethnobotanical uses only for T. zygis ssp. gracilis and T. vulgaris, and not for the rest of the plants, which are generally recognized as different species with a different common name. The rest of the scientific names included in the results corresponding to the taxa identified from vouchers in Morocco. When the related species (or name) used differs in the Compendium or Andalusian ethnobotany, different names are also included. 3. Results 3.1. Ethnobotanical fieldwork in Morocco Although this fieldwork was not focused on Lamiaceae, this proved to be the family with the highest number of plants included, 14 taxa. Most are well-known medicinal plants, with a long tradition of use and more or less in-depth phytochemical studies. Eight also appear in the European Pharmacopoeia (2013) as well as in the commission E monographs (Blumenthal et al., 2000), and only six in the ESCOP monographs (ESCOP, 2003–2009). A sum of 95 medicinal uses have been recorded for these plants in the study area, serving to treat afflictions from 14 pathological groups (Table 1). Undefined symptoms, digestive and respiratory, are the notable pathological groups in use numbers in Morocco for the Lamiaceae (Table 2). On the other hand, Rosmarinus officinalis is the most diversely used plant in the study area, with 14 different medicinal uses, as well as for eastern Andalusia, where it has been declared a panacea (Benítez et al., 2010a; Guzmán-Tirado, 1997). Thymus vulgaris and Marrubium vulgare are also diversely used (10 uses each), and it is noteworthy that Thymus is used for 4 different digestive conditions in the study area. The distribution of medicinal uses quoted for each plant in the study area, in eastern Andalusia, and in the Compendium can be seen in Fig. 2. 3.2. Al-Baytar's work and bibliographical comparison Table 1 also includes the comparison data for the two bibliographical sources: eastern Andalusian ethnobotany and ancient uses according to al-Baytar's work. Grouping all the data, the 14 taxa have been described to treat 125 conditions in 14 pathological groups. The table includes a total of 540 mentions for 395 uses, many being recorded in more than one source. These mentions are sorted by pathological group in Table 2 for the three sources of information used. As the bibliographical framework for Andalusia included a number of field studies, and data from Morocco were from only one field survey, it is not surprising that the number of uses was higher for this latter territory in all pathological groups, apart from birth and pregnancy complications, as well as for the total ones. A brief analysis of Ibn al-Baytar's Compendium for these Lamiaceae indicates the vast amount of information in this text: 193 uses for only 14 taxa. It bears highlighting the importance of these plants in former times for treating conditions included in pathological groups “Undefined symptoms”(such as asthenia, headache, nervousness, fever or general inflammation, included in this group in the followed classification), “Digestive”and “Respiratory”(Table 2). As analysed below, examples of the conserved uses in both territories also appearing in the Compendium are the infusion of Melissa officinalis and Mentha pulegium for gases, Mentha spicata against headache, Ocimum basilicum to avoid vomits and/or Teucrium polium against fever. Moreover, analyses of the uses not described in modern ethnobotanical research from Morocco and Andalusia revealed that 104 uses from the Compendium (55% of the total) are not currently known in these areas. On the other hand, 41 of the 95 included uses for Morocco (44%) and 71 of 257 uses for Andalusia (28%, Table 4) were described in the Compendium, and their precedence can be placed at least in this historical text if not even before, as Ibn al-Baytar also quoted many previous authors, as commented in the Introduction of the present work. To clarify the links between the three sources of plant usage, we drew a Venn diagram (Fig. 3). To analyse the use similarities in each pathological group, we calculated Jaccard's index (Table 3). The groups “Respiratory”, “Undefined symptoms”,“Digestive”,“Genital-urinary”,“Traumatic injuries”, and “Infectious”showed higher levels of similarity. This is not surprising since groups Respiratory and Digestive are the main medicinal uses for the family in many of the works consulted for different Mediterranean territories (Martínez-Lirola, 1993; Benítez, 2009; González-Tejero et al., 2008). To delve into the coincidence analysis for the three sources, we have included two tables. Table 4 reflects shared uses and percentages for each taxa. Table 5 lists the uses (17 conditions and the cosmetic use) for which at least one taxon is mentioned in the three sources, including the number of coincidences and the coincidence percentages. It was calculated by the coefficient between the total number of taxa mentioned for a given condition and the number of coincident taxa in the three sources for this condition. 4. Discussion 4.1. Comparison between sources 4.1.1. General comparison of the three sources Fig. 3 shows that 29 uses coincide in the three sources; therefore, 30.5% of the total uses recorded for Lamiaceae in the study area of Morocco (95, Table 2) are also known to be practiced in Andalusia and were also described by the medieval physician eight centuries earlier. Most of the plants have coinciding uses (those in bold in Table 1). It is worth underscoring the 5 same uses in the cases of Thymus, for three digestive conditions (stomach disorders, liver disease, and halitosis) as well as for sore throats and as a cosmetic, while Rosmarinus officinalis is used for asthma, cold or cough, liver disease and menstruation disorders. Origanum vulgare, which serves for stomach disorders, colds or cough, menstruation disorders, and loss of appetite, is the third most used plant in number of coinciding uses. The remaining plants have only one or two coinciding uses in the three sources, but Ballota nigra,Lavandula, and Origanum majorana do not coincide in uses. Table 5 lists the most coinciding conditions among the three sources. Cold or cough, stomach disorders, and menstruation disorders most coincide regarding the taxa used. Nevertheless, when the percentages are compared while taking into account the total number of taxa used in each condition, gallbladder disorders become striking. 4.1.2. Eastern Morocco, eastern Andalusia and probable links in uses There are 61 coinciding uses for both territories (Fig. 3,Table 4), representing some 64% of coincidence for the recorded uses in Morocco. All plants apart from Ballota hirsuta and Origanum majorA. El-Gharbaoui et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 202 (2017) 208–224 212 Table 1 Scientific names of the plants used in the study area, with specifications of the different names in the study area and the bibliographical consulted works and the parts used. Vernacular names, pathological groups, conditions and quotations through the three sources for plant uses. Conditions in bold coincide for the three sources. IB: Ibn al-Baytar; M. Morocco; A: Andalusia. Scientific name (s), Vouchers. Part used Vernacular names Pathological group Condition IB M A Ballota nigra L. MP-Lam-001 FP Flowered aeral parts IB: (n° 341, 1245, 2123) Ballouti, marrouba banthoucha, sindiyân alârd (ﺑﻠﻮﳶ،ﻣﺮﻭﺑﺔﺑﻨﺜﻮﺷﺔ،ﺳﻨﺪﻳﺎﻥﺍﻻﺭﺽ ). M: Farrasyûn ( ﻓﺮﺳﻴﻮﻥ ). A: Manrubio negro, Manrubio fétido. Circulatory system Hemorrhoids + –– Digestive system Toothache ––+ Genito-urinary Menstruation disorders –+– Traumatic injuries Animal bites + –– Wounds / ulcers / sores + –– Undefined symptoms Nervousness –+– Lavandula spp. M. Lavandula x intermedia Emeric. ex Loisel. MP-Lam-002 FP A.Lavandula latifolia Medicus; L. lanata Boiss. IB. Lavandula spica L. (=L. angustifolia Mill.) and L. officinalis Chaix (=L. angustifolia Mill.) Flowered aeral parts or flowers IB: (n° 791) Alkhozâma (ﺍﳋﺰﺍﱉ). M: L-khzâma ( ﳋﺰﺍﱉ). A:Alhucema, Alucemón, Lavanda, Espliego. Circulatory system Blood pressure disorders ––+ Varicose veins ––+ Cardiac disorders ––+ Digestive system Toothache ––+ Liver disease + –– Spleen disease + –– Stomach disorders / pain / dyspepsia ––+ Complications of pregnancy and childbirth Infertility + –– Genito-urinary Affections of the matrix + –– Bones and articulations Rheumatism –++ Sciatica –+– Traumatic injuries Contusion ––+ Wounds / ulcers / sores ––+ Animal bites ––+ Metabolism and nutrition Diabetes ––+ Hypercholesterolemia ––+ Skin and subcutaneous tissue Alopecia –++ Eczema ––+ Respiratory System Asthma –++ Sore throats ––+ Rhinitis + –– Cold / cough –++ Nervous system and sense organs Migraine ––+ Mental Illness Depression ––+ Undefined symptoms Aphrodisiac ––+ Pain –++ Insomnia ––+ Nervousness + –– Frailty + –+ Flatulence ––+ Anorexy/Loss of appetite ––+ Sweat ––+ Lavandula stoechas L. MP-Lam-003 FP Flowered aeral parts IB: (n° 62, 1437, 1944, 2182) Astoukhodos, muwaqef lârwâh, dhirm, kicha, momsik el-ârwâh (ﺍﺳﻄﻮﺧﻮﺩﻭﺱ، ﴐﻡ،ﻛﺸﺔ،ﻣﻮﻗﻒﺍﻻﺭﻭﺍﺡ،ﳑﺴﻚﺍﻻﺭﻭﺍﺡ ). M: Halhal (ﳊﻠﺤﺎﻝ ). A: Cantuezo, Tomillo, Cantueso basto. Circulatory system Cardiac disorders + –– Circulatory disorders ––+ Digestive system Liver disease + –+ Spleen disease + –– Gallbladder disorders ––+ Intestine disorders ––+ Gastric ulcer ––+ Stomach disorders / pain / dyspepsia +–+ Genito-urinary Kidney disease + –+ Diuretic ––+ Bones and articulations Rheumatism + + + Sciatica ––+ Traumatic injuries Contusion + –+ Wounds / ulcers / sores –++ (continued on next page) A. El-Gharbaoui et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 202 (2017) 208–224 213 Table 1 (continued) Scientific name (s), Vouchers. Part used Vernacular names Pathological group Condition IB M A Animal bites + –– Metabolism and nutrition Diabetes ––+ Hypercholesterolemia ––+ Obesity ––+ Respiratory System Cold / cough + + + Nervous system and sense organs Apoplexy + –– Epilepsy + + – Nervous disorders + + – Mental Illness Melancholia + + – Undefined symptoms Asthenia + –– Headache + –+ Colics + –– Queasiness + –– Anorexy/Loss of appetite + –+ Marrubium vulgare L. MP-Lam-004 FP Flowered aeral parts IB: (n° 1316, 1347, 1674) Farâssyûn, chennâr, cherbet, merriw ( ﻓﺮﺍﺳﻴﻮﻥ،ﴍﺑﺖ،ﺷﻨﺎﺭ،ﻣﺮﻭﻱ ). M:Marrîwa (ﻣﺮﻳﻮﺓ ). A: Malrrubio, Marubío, Mastranzo, Matroncho, Marubio negro. Circulatory system Blood pressure disorders ––+ Blood purifyer ––+ Digestive system Constipation ––+ Toothache ––+ Liver disease ––+ Intestine disorders + –+ Spleen disease + –– Stomach disorders / pain / dyspepsia +–+ Genito-urinary Diuretic –++ Menstruation disorders –++ Dysuria + –– Bones and articulations Rheumatism ––+ Infectious and parasitic diseases Helminth –+– Herpes ––+ Brucellosis ––+ Infection ––+ Lymph node alterations + –– Traumatic injuries Wounds / ulcers / sores + –+ Metabolism and nutrition Diabetes –++ Hypercholesterolemia ––+ Hyperuricemia ––+ Obesity ––+ Skin and subcutaneous tissue Abscess + –+ Erysipelas ––+ Eczema ––+ Respiratory System Asthma + –+ Dyspnoea + –– Cold / cough + + + Ulcer in the lung + –– Nervous system and sense organs Eye disease + –– Tumors Malignant sores + –– Cancer ––+ Undefined symptoms Asthenia ––+ Colics + –+ Fever –++ Insomnia –+– Nervousness –– + Flatulence ––+ Anorexy/Loss of appetite –++ Jaundice –++ Cosmetic –+– Melissa officinalis L. MP-Lam-005 FP Aereal parts IB: (221, 326, 592, 1928, 2082) Baklat el-atrodjîa, toroufjân, turunjân, badrendjouya, kezouân, habaq torondjâny, mâlissofulon ( ﺏﺍﺩﺭﳒﻮﻳﺔ،ﺗﺮﱋﺍﻥ،ﺑﻘﻠﺔﺍﻻﺛﺮﺟﻴﺔ، ﻣﻔﺮﺝﺍﻟﻘﻠﺐ،ﻛﺰﻭﺍﻥ،ﺣﺒﻖﺗﺮﳒﺎﱐ،ﻣﺎﻟﺴﻮﻓﻠﻦ ). Circulatory system Cardiac disorders + –+ Digestive system Diarrhea + –+ Constipation + –+ (continued on next page) A. El-Gharbaoui et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 202 (2017) 208–224 214 Table 1 (continued) Scientific name (s), Vouchers. Part used Vernacular names Pathological group Condition IB M A M:Na’nâ ssoufi(ﻧﻌﻨﺎﻉﺻﻮﰲ). A:Melissa, Citronela, Torongil, Té de calazo. Halitosis + –+ Liver disease + –– Infectious and parasitic diseases Scabies + –– Respiratory System Dyspnoea + –– Nervous system and sense organs Epilepsy + –– Cerebral obstruction + –– Mental Illness Depression + –+ Undefined symptoms Insomnia ––+ Queasiness + + – Nerviosism ––+ Flatulence + + + Anorexy/Loss of appetite + –+ Hiccup + –– Mentha pulegium L. MP-Lam-006 AP Aereal parts IB: (1639, 1712): Foudendji, ghlichon, bolaïa qoboria, foulaïa, tikothan, foutendj berry (ﻓﻮﺩﱋ،ﻓﻠﻴﺔ،ﻏﻠﻴﺠﻮﻥ، ﺗﻴﻜﻮﺛﺎﻥ،ﻓﻮﺗﻨﺞﺑﺮ ﻱ،ﺑﻼﻳﺔﻗﺒﻮﺭﻳﺔ ). M: Fliyyo (ﻓﻠﻴﻮ ). A:Poleo, Menta poleo. Circulatory system Blood purifyer ––+ Circulatory disorders ––+ Digestive system Diarrhea ––+ Constipation ––+ Toothache ––+ Liver disease –++ Stomach disorders / pain / dyspepsia –++ Complications of pregnancy and childbirth Pregnancy (abortive) ––+ Genito-urinary Kidney disease ––+ Affections of the matrix ––+ Diuretic ––+ Menstruation disorders –++ Bones and articulations Rheumatism ––+ Infectious and parasitic diseases Helminth ––+ Metabolism and nutrition Diabetes ––+ Hypercholesterolemia ––+ Obesity ––+ Respiratory System Asthma –+– Cold / cough + + + Undefined symptoms Aphrodisiac ––+ Headache –++ Queasiness ––+ Inflammation +–– Flatulence + + + Anorexy/Loss of appetite ––+ Mentha spicata L. MP-Lam-007 AP Aereal parts IB: (n°: 2227), Na’na’(ﻧﻌﻨﻊ ). M: Na’na’(ﻧﻌﻨﺎﻉ ), Lîqama ( ﻟﻘﺎﻣﺔ ). A:Hierba buena, Menta. Circulatory system Hemorrhoids + + – Circulatory disorders ––+ Cardiac tonic + –– Digestive system Constipation ––+ Toothache + –– Stomach disorders / pain / dyspepsia +++ Complications of pregnancy and childbirth Childbirth difficulties + –– Breast swelling –+– Galactogen –+– Genito-urinary Testicular diseases + –– Infectious and parasitic diseases Helminth –++ Lymph node alterations + –– Traumatic injuries Animal bites + –– Burns + + + Metabolism and nutrition Diabetes ––+ Hypercholesterolemia ––+ (continued on next page) A. El-Gharbaoui et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 202 (2017) 208–224 215 Table 1 (continued) Scientific name (s), Vouchers. Part used Vernacular names Pathological group Condition IB M A Skin and subcutaneous tissue Abscess + –– Corns and calluses ––+ Respiratory System Cold / cough + –+ Undefined symptoms Aphrodisiac + –+ Headache + + + Fever ––+ Anorexy/Loss of appetite + –+ Hiccup + –– Thirst –+– Vomits + –+ Tonic –+– Ocimum basilicum L. MP-Lam-008 L & F Leaves or aereal parts IB: (n° 205, 223, 511, 589, 593, 704, 726, 892, 897, 1075, 1077, 1268, 1441) Habaq nabaty, Badroudj, Elhouc, Rîhân Soleyman, Habaq sa’tarî, Habaq kermâny, Rihan hamahîm, Djemserfrem, Habaq rîhâny ( ﺣﺒﻖ ﻧﺒﺎﰐ،ﺑﺎﺩﺭﻭﺝ،ﺭﳛﺎﻥﺳﻠﻴﲈﻥ،ﺍﳊﻮﻙ،ﺣﺒﻖﻛﺮﻣﺎﱐ،ﺣﺒﻖﺻﻌﱰﻱ، ﺷﺎﻫﺴ ﻔﺮﻡ،ﺭﳛﺎﻥﺍﶵﺎﰘ). M:Lahbaq (ﳊﺒﻖ ). A:Albahaca. Circulatory system Hemorrhoids + + – Syncope + –– Cardiac disorders + –– Digestive system Oral thrush + –– Diarrhea + –– Constipation ––+ Halitosis ––+ Toothache + –– Stomach disorders / pain / dyspepsia +++ Complications of pregnancy and childbirth Galactogen –++ Genito-urinary Affections of the matrix + –– Diuretic ––+ Bones and articulations Rheumatism ––+ Obstruction of joints + –– Infectious and parasitic diseases Helminth ––+ Traumatic injuries Wounds / ulcers / sores + –+ Animal bites + –+ Burns + –– Metabolism and nutrition Obesity ––+ Gout + –– Skin and subcutaneous tissue Alopecia ––+ Erysipelas + –– Respiratory System Sore throats ––+ Dyspnoea + –– Bloody sputum + –– Cold / cough + –+ Nervous system and sense organs Eye disease ––+ Earache + –– Cerebral obstruction + –– Facial tic + –– Pituitary tumor + –– Mental Illness Depression –+– Undefined symptoms Aphrodisiac ––+ Headache ––+ Insomnia + + – Flatulence + –+ Anorexy/Loss of appetite + –+ Vomits + + + Tonic –+– Obstruction + –– Origanum majorana L. MP-Lam-009 FP Flowered aeral parts IB: (n° 178, 586, 587, 891, 1230, 1598, 2100) Andjouk, merzendjouch, hebak el - qana, dohne el merzendjouch, merdadouch, Merdaqûch, Semsak, ‘Anqar (ﻋﻨﺠﻮﻕ، ﻣﺮﺯﳒﻮﺵ،ﺩﻫﻦﺍﳌﺮﺯﳒﻮﺵ،ﺣﺒﻖﺍﻟﻘﻨﺎ،ﲰﺴﻖ،ﻣﺮﺩﻗﻮﺵ، ﻣﺮﺩﺩﻭﺵ،ﻋﻨﻖﺭ ). M: Merdeddouch (ﻣﺮﺩﺩﻭﺵ ). Circulatory system Palpitation + –– Digestive system Stomach disorders / pain / dyspepsia ++– Genito-urinary Diuretic + + – Menstruation disorders ––+ (continued on next page) A. El-Gharbaoui et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 202 (2017) 208–224 216 References Adjanohoun, E.J., Adjakidje, V., Ahyi, M.R.A., Aké assi, L., Akoegninou, A., d’Almeida, J., Apovo, F., Boukef, K., Chadare, M., Cusset, G., Dramane, K., Eyme, J., Gassita, J.-N., Gbaguidi, N., Goudote, E., Guinko, P., Houngnon, P., Lo, I., Keita, A., Kiniffo, H.V., Kone-Bamba, D., Musampa Nseyya, A., Saadou, M., Sodogandji, Th, de Souza, S., Tchabi, A., Zinsou Dossa, C., Zohoun, Th, 1989. 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