Active Shortening Simultaneous to Normal Faulting Based on GNSS, Geophysical, and Geological Data: The Seismogenic Ventas de Zafarraya Fault (Betic Cordillera, Southern Spain)

1. Introduction Active normal faults are brittle structures accommodating deformation in regions affected by extension (e.g., Jackson,1987; Jackson & White,1989). However, in active orogenic belts developed by shortening, most of the normal faults accommodate regional orthogonal extension (e.g., in metamorphic core complexes, Rey etal.,2017; Abstract The central Betic Cordillera, southern Spain, is affected by an uplift related to the NNW–SSE Eurasia-Nubia convergence and shallow ENE–WSW orthogonal extension accommodated by the extensional system of the Granada Basin. The combination of geophysical, geodetic, and geological data reveals that the southwestern boundary of this extensional system is a seismically active compressional front extending from the W to the SW of the Granada Basin. The near-field Global Navigation Satellite System data determine NNE–SSW shortening of up to 2mm/yr of the compressional front in the Zafarraya Polje. In this setting, the normal Ventas de Zafarraya Fault developed as a result of the bending-moment extension of the Sierra de Alhama antiform and was last reactivated during the 1884 Andalusian earthquake (Mw 6.5). The uplift in the central Betic Cordillera together with the subsidence in the Western Alborán Basin may facilitate a westward to southwestward gravitational collapse through the extensional detachment of the Granada Basin. The heterogeneous crust of the Betic Cordillera would generate the compressional front, which is divided into two sectors: thrusting to the west, and folding associated with buttressing to the south. Our results evidence that basal detachments, linking extensional fault activity with compressional fronts, may determine the activity of local surface structures and the geological hazard in densely populated regions. Plain Language Summary A combination of geological, geophysical, and geodetic methods is used to understand the evolution in the frontal area of the extensional system of Granada Basin, near the Zafarraya Polje. In particular, this approach improves our knowledge of the Ventas de Zafarraya Fault (VZF) that hosted the 1884 Andalusian earthquake. Seismic data provide information on the distribution of stress and deformation in the region and made it possible to identify a compressional front linked to the extensional system of the Granada Basin. Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data accurately locate the sites of the Zafarraya GNSS network surrounding the VZF, and repeated measurements provide deformation rates of the area that suggests shortening. Thus, we locate the VZF within the former compressional setting. Meanwhile, electrical-resistivity tomography images sub-surface structures given its electrical properties and, together with the field geological observations, suggests the extensional behavior of the fault. Therefore, it is considered to be a fold-related fault formed due to the extension of the outer arc of the Sierra de Alhama antiform. As in the research presented here, a joint interpretation of data from different methods makes it possible to propose active seismic tectonic extensional models in a compressional setting applicable to other regions. MADARIETA-TXURRUKA ETAL. © 2024. The Authors. This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made. Active Shortening Simultaneous to Normal Faulting Based on GNSS, Geophysical, and Geological Data: The Seismogenic Ventas de Zafarraya Fault (Betic Cordillera, Southern Spain) Asier Madarieta-Txurruka1 , Lourdes González-Castillo1 , José A. Peláez2 , Jesús Galindo-Zaldívar1,3 , María J. Borque4,5 , María C. Lacy4,5 , Antonio M. Ruiz-Armenteros4,5 , Jesús Henares6 , Patricia Ruano1,3 , Alberto Sánchez-Alzola7 , Manuel Avilés4 , Gracia Rodríguez-Caderot8 , Francisco José Martínez-Moreno9 , Víctor Tendero-Salmerón1,3 , Raquel Vinardell-Peña4 , and Antonio J. Gil4,5 1Departamento de Geodinámica, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain, 2Departamento de Física, Universidad de Jaén, Jaén, Spain, 3Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra (CSIC-UGR), Granada, Spain, 4Departamento Ing. Cartográfica, Geodésica y Fotogrametría, Universidad de Jaén, Jaén, Spain, 5Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Ciencias de la Tierra, Energía y Medio Ambiente (CEACTEMA), Universidad de Jaén, Jaén, Spain, 6Universidad Internacional de La Rioja, Logroño, Spain, 7Departamento de Estadística e Investigación Operativa, Universidad de Cádiz, Puerto Real, Spain, 8Departamento de Física de la Tierra y Astrofísica, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain, 9Departamento de Geodinámica, Paleontología y Estratigrafía, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain Key Points: • Shortening up to 2mm/yr suggests activity of the Ventas de Zafarraya normal Fault simultaneous to folding • The Sierra de Alhama-Zafarraya Polje area belongs to a compressional front located to the W and SW of the extensional Granada Basin • Shallow normal faults may constitute the surface expression of deep main faults developed in a complex crustal compressional setting Supporting Information: Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this article. Correspondence to: A. Madarieta-Txurruka and L. González-Castillo, [email protected]; [email protected] Citation: Madarieta-Txurruka, A., González-Castillo, L., Peláez, J. A., Galindo-Zaldívar, J., Borque, M. J., Lacy, M. C., etal. (2024). Active shortening simultaneous to normal faulting based on GNSS, geophysical, and geological data: The seismogenic Ventas de Zafarraya Fault (Betic Cordillera, southern Spain). Tectonics, 43, e2023TC007956. https:// doi.org/10.1029/2023TC007956 Received 7 JUN 2023 Accepted 4 JAN 2024 Author Contributions: Conceptualization: Asier MadarietaTxurruka, Lourdes González-Castillo, José A. Peláez, Jesús Galindo-Zaldívar, Antonio J. Gil 10.1029/2023TC007956 RESEARCH ARTICLE 1 of 24 Tectonics MADARIETA-TXURRUKA ETAL. 10.1029/2023TC007956 2 of 24 Searle & Lamont,2020) or local extension parallel to regional shortening, as occurs in folds (Galindo-Zaldívar etal.,2003; Li etal.,2018; Stephenson etal.,2007; Yeats etal.,1981). The extension in orogenic belts is related to or can be intensified by gravitational collapse processes (e.g., England & Houseman,1989; England & Molnar,1997; Flesch etal.,2000; Morley,2007; Rey etal.,2010). Shortening involves thickening of the crust, uplift of the relief, and, finally, destabilization of the uplifted areas. Consequently, the elevated regions are affected by thinning and extension, while the surrounding crust may be influenced by thickening if there is any fixed boundary (Selverstone,2005). Regionally, these processes may be restricted to the upper crust or even to involve whole the crust (Rey etal.,2001). When extension affects only the upper crust, normal faults occur above an extensional detachment developed in the thickest part of the crust. The detachment is connected with thrusts in the surrounding and frontal areas, sometimes reaching the foreland (e.g., Mancktelow & Pavlis,1994; Rey etal.,2011; Wdowinski & Axen,1992). The geometry of these thrust systems will also depend on the crustal structure beneath the detachment, determining the formation of lateral and oblique ramps (Boyer,1995; Hinsch etal.,2002; Mitra,1997; Wiltschko & Eastman,1983). In fact, one of the most important control mechanisms for the geometry of thrust systems is active buttressing (Woodward,1988). The migration of extensional systems is another factor to consider in gravitational collapse and thrusting phenomena. In these systems, the activity is not always distributed uniformly over time but migrates from some faults to others (e.g., Buck,1988; Goldsworthy & Jackson,2001; Gresseth etal.,2023; Wallace,1987). This active migration likewise affects the evolution of the thrust front, pushing it to propagate in the same trend. Overall, thrusting generally migrates from the inner part toward the outer part of the orogen (Zhao etal.,2022) and develops a piggyback mode of propagation (e.g., Fillon etal.,2013; Ghani etal.,2021; Jia etal.,2020; Ori & Friend,1984). Gravitational collapse is characterized by the interaction of faults and folds. There are folds formed by fault activity (Brandes & Tanner,2014) and faults formed by fold activity (Yeats etal.,1981). Fold-related extensional fractures (Cosgrove,2015; Nabavi & Fossen,2021) can develop perpendicular, oblique, or parallel to the fold axis (Stephenson etal.,2007), thereby providing insight into the relationship between strain and stress (Amrouch et al., 2010; Silliphant etal.,2002). Orthogonal and oblique-to-fold-axis fractures accommodate extension perpendicular to shortening (Moustafa,2013), while parallel fractures are related to bending-moment extension in the outer arc (Yeats etal.,1981). These fractures sometimes constitute well-developed faults, whose main features will depend on the fold type (Li etal.,2018; Livio etal.,2019; Yeats etal.,1981). Faulting thus depends on fold symmetry, interlimb angle, curvature intensity (Watkins etal.,2018), and lithological and stratigraphic features (Li etal.,2018), among others. The seismic activity of such faults has not been studied in detail, although in certain cases historical events have been correlated with earthquakes occurring on basal thrust systems (Meghraoui & Doumaz,1996). The interaction between faults and folds can be studied using near-field Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) networks (Tsukahara & Takada,2018). These networks consist of measurements taken near structures that are suspected to be active (Keller & Pinter,1996). They allow for quantifying the shortening and lengthening of the Earth's surface on a local scale and to compare geodetic slip rates with present-day fault kinematics and faulting and folding rates obtained from geological observations (Galindo-Zaldívar etal.,2022). On the other hand, regional scale processes such as orogenic building and dismantling (e.g., Bilham etal.,1997; Niemi etal.,2004; Nocquet etal.,2016) and plate motion (Kreemer etal.,2014) can be investigated using a far-field approach, which involves measurements over long distances, far away from any specific active structure (Keller & Pinter,1996). Furthermore, these networks can also serve to estimate fault slip rates of specific structures, if the site configuration adequately covers them. Precise Point Positioning (PPP) (Zumberge etal.,1997) is one of the available GNSS processing methods for quantifying geodynamic processes causing deformation on the scale of mm/yr (Hreinsdóttir etal.,2006; Kouba,2005; Larson etal.,2004; Smith etal.,2004), which is very important in regions with low deformation rates. The Betic Cordillera, southern Spain (Figure1), is a key region for studying interactions between extensional and compressional structures, hence the interaction between normal faulting and folding. This cordillera is the northern branch of the Gibraltar Arc, the westernmost alpine belt in the Mediterranean that also includes the Rif Cordillera constituting the southern branch. The Betic Cordillera is composed of two domains divided by Flysch Units (Fontboté & Estévez,1980) (Figure1a). The Internal Zones, in the south, are mainly formed by three superimposed metamorphic complexes (Nevado-Filábride, Alpujárride, and Maláguide) (Fallot,1948). The External Zones, to the north, constitute the thrust-and-fold belt formed by Meso-Cenozoic rocks of the South-Iberian paleomargin (Balanyá & García-Dueñas,1987). There are Neogene-Quaternary intramontane basins within the Data curation: Asier MadarietaTxurruka, Lourdes González-Castillo, José A. Peláez, Jesús Galindo-Zaldívar, María J. Borque, María C. Lacy, Antonio M. Ruiz-Armenteros, Jesús Henares, Patricia Ruano, Alberto Sánchez-Alzola, Manuel Avilés, Gracia RodríguezCaderot, Francisco José MartínezMoreno, Víctor Tendero-Salmerón, Raquel Vinardell-Peña, Antonio J. Gil Formal analysis: Asier MadarietaTxurruka, Lourdes González-Castillo, José A. Peláez, Jesús Galindo-Zaldívar, María J. Borque, María C. Lacy, Antonio M. Ruiz-Armenteros, Jesús Henares, Patricia Ruano, Alberto Sánchez-Alzola, Manuel Avilés, Gracia RodríguezCaderot, Francisco José MartínezMoreno, Víctor Tendero-Salmerón, Raquel Vinardell-Peña, Antonio J. Gil Funding acquisition: José A. Peláez, Jesús Galindo-Zaldívar, Antonio J. Gil Investigation: Asier Madarieta-Txurruka, Lourdes González-Castillo, José A. Peláez, Jesús Galindo-Zaldívar, María J. Borque, María C. Lacy, Antonio M. Ruiz-Armenteros, Jesús Henares, Patricia Ruano, Alberto Sánchez-Alzola, Manuel Avilés, Gracia Rodríguez-Caderot, Francisco José Martínez-Moreno, Víctor Tendero-Salmerón, Raquel VinardellPeña, Antonio J. Gil Methodology: Asier Madarieta-Txurruka, Lourdes González-Castillo, José A. Peláez, Jesús Galindo-Zaldívar, Antonio J. Gil Project Administration: José A. Peláez, Jesús Galindo-Zaldívar, Antonio J. Gil Resources: José A. Peláez, Jesús Galindo-Zaldívar, María J. Borque, María C. Lacy, Antonio M. Ruiz-Armenteros, Jesús Henares, Manuel Avilés, Antonio J. Gil Software: José A. Peláez, Jesús GalindoZaldívar, Antonio J. Gil Supervision: Lourdes González-Castillo, José A. Peláez, Jesús Galindo-Zaldívar, Antonio J. Gil Validation: Lourdes González-Castillo, José A. Peláez, Jesús Galindo-Zaldívar, Antonio J. Gil Visualization: Asier Madarieta-Txurruka, José A. Peláez, Jesús Galindo-Zaldívar, Antonio J. Gil Writing – original draft: Asier Madarieta-Txurruka, Lourdes GonzálezCastillo, Jesús Galindo-Zaldívar, Antonio J. Gil Writing – review & editing: Lourdes González-Castillo, José A. Peláez, Jesús Galindo-Zaldívar, María J. Borque, María C. Lacy, Antonio M. Ruiz-Armenteros, Jesús Henares, Patricia Ruano, Alberto Sánchez-Alzola, Manuel Avilés, Gracia Rodríguez-Caderot, Francisco José Martínez-Moreno, Víctor TenderoSalmerón, Raquel Vinardell-Peña, Antonio J. Gil 19449194, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023TC007956 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [12/02/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Tectonics MADARIETA-TXURRUKA ETAL. 10.1029/2023TC007956 3 of 24 Betic Cordillera, with some of them, like the Granada Basin and the Zafarraya Polje, situated along the Internal/ External Zones boundary. Recent models explaining the evolution of Betic Cordillera can be summarized in two main groups: (a) delamination of the Alborán lithospheric mantle (e.g., Calvert etal.,2000; Houseman etal.,1981; Platt & Vissers,1989; Figure 1. Geological and tectonic setting of the central Betic Cordillera: (a) Geological sketch of the Betic Cordillera. The red arrow indicates a motion of Nubia relative to stable Eurasia from DeMets etal.(2010), McClusky etal.(2003), and Nocquet and Calais(2003). Green arrows indicate a WSW–ENE extension registered in the central Betic Cordillera from Galindo-Zaldívar etal.(2015), Palano etal.(2015), and Serpelloni etal.(2007). WAB: Western Alborán Basin. GB: Granada Basin. GBB: Guadix-Baza Basin. (b) Bouguer anomaly map derived from free-air anomaly data (Sandwell etal.,2013). (c) Simplified geological map of the central Betic Cordillera modified from Rodríguez etal.(2015), Ruano etal.(2004), and Galindo-Zaldívar etal.(2000). Red arrows represent the Global Navigation Satellite System data taken from Galindo-Zaldívar etal.(2015). The position of the study area shown in Figure2 is indicated in (b) and (c). 19449194, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023TC007956 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [12/02/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Tectonics MADARIETA-TXURRUKA ETAL. 10.1029/2023TC007956 4 of 24 Seber etal.,1996), and (b) subduction beneath the Alborán Domain with or without rollback/slab tearing (e.g., Blanco & Spakman,1993; Chertova etal.,2014; Garcia-Castellanos & Villaseñor,2011; González-Castillo etal.,2015a; Mancilla etal.,2015; Pedrera etal.,2011; Ruiz-Constán etal.,2011). The main deformation in the Betic Cordillera was the large dextral displacement between the Internal and External zones from the Cretaceous until at least the middle Miocene (Sanz de Galdeano,1990). Subsequently, the Betic Cordillera was affected by a N–S to NNW–SSE compression due to the Eurasia-Nubia convergence (Braga etal.,2003; Sanz de Galdeano & Alfaro,2004). This convergence has produced uplift and perpendicular extension in the central sector of Internal Zones since the middle Miocene (Braga etal.,2003; Perez-Peña etal.,2010; Reinhardt etal.,2007). The extension allows for the exhumation of metamorphic complexes due to the formation of WSW-directed and west-dipping low-angle normal faults, such as the Mecina detachment in Sierra Nevada (Galindo-Zaldívar etal.,1989; Jabaloy etal.,1993). The Betic Cordillera is currently affected by a NNW–SSE to NW–SE 4–6 mm/yr Eurasia-Nubia convergence (DeMets et al., 2010; McClusky et al., 2003; Nocquet & Calais, 2003). At the same time, a nearly 2mm/yr ENE–WSW extension perpendicular to regional compression occurs in the central Betic Cordillera (Galindo-Zaldívar etal.,2015; Martín-Rojas etal.,2023; Palano etal.,2015; Serpelloni etal.,2007), forming active highand low-angle normal faults (Galindo-Zaldívar etal.,1999; Lozano etal.,2022; Madarieta-Txurruka etal.,2021,2022; Sanz de Galdeano etal.,2003). Today, the Granada Basin is the main extensional active basin of the central Betic Cordillera (Morales etal.,1990; Rodríguez-Fernández & Sanz de Galdeano,2006). It is affected by low-to-moderate recurrent seismicity in its eastern part (Galindo-Zaldívar etal.,1999) related to NW–SE striking normal faulting that indicates W–E to NE–SW extension (Madarieta-Txurruka etal.,2021). This sector is also affected by perpendicular NE–SW striking normal faults (Madarieta-Txurruka etal.,2022) and microfaults also evidencing radial extension in the region (Galindo-Zaldívar etal.,1999). In addition, GNSS data available for the region (Galindo-Zaldívar etal.,2015; Gil etal.,2017) point to an extension that rotates and decreases in rate from E–W in the north to NE–SW in the south (Madarieta-Txurruka etal.,2022). To the west (Figure1b), the evolution of this extensional system is unclear, but the area is also affected by compressional and strike-slip deformation. The northwestern part of the Granada Basin has undergone NW– Figure 2. Geological and tectonic map of the study area modified from Rodríguez etal.(2015). The green dots and the dashed white lines represent the Zafarraya survey mode Global Navigation Satellite System network. The yellow star represents the epicenter of the 1884 Andalusian earthquake (National Geographic Institute,2023). The red line box shows the location of Figure5. 19449194, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023TC007956 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [12/02/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Tectonics MADARIETA-TXURRUKA ETAL. 10.1029/2023TC007956 5 of 24 SE compression, as indicated by WSW–ENE striking folds affecting Turolian rocks and striated pebbles of Languian-Burdingalian to Plio-Quaternary age rocks (Ruano,2003). Sierra Gorda, to the west, is characterized by thrusts and folds (Elorza etal.,1978; Sanz de Galdeano,2013) indicating WSW displacement during the Miocene, probably linked to the low-angle normal faults of eastern Granada Basin, likewise active during the Miocene (Galindo-Zaldívar etal.,2000). To the south, east of the Zafarraya Polje, Pliocene-Pleistocene striated pebbles indicate a NNW–SSE and W–E Quaternary compression (Sanz de Galdeano,1985). Finally, the Sierra Tejeda Antiform is the main structure bounding the Granada Basin to the SW. This antiform is currently uplifting, as evidenced by a highly incised drainage network (Ruano etal.,2004). It strikes W–E and bends to WNW– ESE in the western part. The southern limb is affected by normal-to-normal-dextral low-angle normal faults, in turn related to the exhumation of metamorphic core complexes during the Miocene (Fernández Fernández etal.,1992), that are folded and sealed by Quaternary sediments (Ruano,2003). Bouguer Anomaly data available for the region (Ayala etal.,2016; Torné etal.,1992) show two main positive anomalies located along the coast of Málaga, west of Sierra Tejeda (Figure1c). Those anomalies have been associated with ultramafic rocks embedded in the crust (Pedrera etal.,2020; Torne etal.,1992). The GNSS data show a general displacement to the W–SW with respect to stable Iberia (Figure1b) and ENE– WSW shortening (Galindo-Zaldívar etal.,2015; Martín-Rojas etal.,2023), consistent with geological evidence of compression at the western and southwestern boundaries of the Granada Basin. Seismological data west of the Granada Basin differ providing earthquake focal mechanisms (EFMs) not only of compressional faulting, but also of strike-slip and normal faulting. The strike-slip earthquakes sited in the northern part of Sierra Gorda indicate both N–S sinistral and W–E dextral behavior (Carmona etal.,2009; Stich etal.,2003). The Sierra Gorda and other mountain ranges located to the west are mainly characterized by strike-slip and normal faulting EFMs, but compressional faulting also occurs (Balanyá etal.,2012). Toward the south, seismicity decreases drastically and no EFMs are available. The Zafarraya Polje (Figure2) is located southwest of the Granada Basin, between Sierra Gorda and Sierra Tejeda. It is an endorheic basin consisting of a plain and several ponors where water infiltrates into the ground, as is common for poljes. However, its formation is due to erosion and tectonic processes rather than karst. It is bounded by normal faults, but lies between folds and reverse faults (Sanz de Galdeano,2013). The Ventas de Zafarraya Fault (VZF) is the main active seismogenic normal fault in the region (Grützner etal.,2013; Reicherter etal.,2003). Yet Galindo-Zaldívar etal.(2003) and Ruano etal.(2004) consider a secondary structure of the region, related to the extension of the outer arc of Sierra de Alhama and Sierra Tejeda folds affecting both the Internal and External Zones. This fault has been linked to the 1884 Andalusian earthquake (Mudarra-Hernández etal.,2023; Reicherter etal.,2003), one of the most important historical earthquakes in the Iberian Peninsula (Mezcua etal.,2004; Udías & Muñoz,1979). It has been linked to normal faulting (Reicherter etal.,2003), reaching intensity IX-X (EMS-98 scale), and an estimated magnitude equal to Mw 6.5 (Mezcua etal.,2004). The hypocenter is located between Alhama de Granada and Arenas del Rey (Figure2) (Martinez Solares & Mezcua,2002), at a depth of about 10–20km (Udías & Muñoz,1979). Further faults strike E–W, NE–SW, and N–S, as the West Polje Fault (Sanz de Galdeano,2013). This study aims to quantify the deformation in the Zafarraya Polje area, where the normal seismogenic VZF lies, providing new insights regarding the development of this extensional structure in the context of the active evolution of the Betic Cordillera collisional alpine belt. This multidisciplinary study combines geophysical, geodetic, and geological analyses. New data presented include the Zafarraya survey mode GNSS network, relocated seismicity in the western and southwestern boundaries of the Granada Basin, electrical-resistivity tomography (ERT) profiles, and new structural and kinematic data. Our results may contribute to a better understanding of extensional fault systems in orogens, whose activity represents a seismic hazard for nearby populations. 2. Data and Methods This multidisciplinary study integrates seismological, GNSS, geological data, and ERT profiles. The seismological data consist of relocated seismicity occurring in the area since 2000, compilation of the available EFMs solutions, and calculation of stress tensors in the region comprised between −4.55°/−3.90° and 36.85°/37.15°. The relocation was assessed by a double-difference earthquake location algorithm, which enhances the relative location of events, using the HypoDD code (Waldhauser,2001; Waldhauser & Ellsworth,2000). The P and S phase data recorded by the Spanish Instituto Geográfico Nacional (IGN) (National Geographic Institute,2023), 19449194, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023TC007956 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [12/02/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Tectonics MADARIETA-TXURRUKA ETAL. 10.1029/2023TC007956 6 of 24 derived from the permanent seismic network, as well as the velocity model of Palomeras etal.(2014), were used for the process (Figure3; TableS1). All the available EFMs since 1985 were considered (Figure4a; TableS2) to calculate the reduced stress tensors, using the Win-Tensor code and the inversion method developed by Delvaux and Sperner(2003) and Delvaux and Barth(2010). We calculated the stress tensor from mantle earthquakes and six crustal seismotectonic regions (Figure4b; Table S3). Crustal seismotectonic regions are established based on the basis of both surface geological features and patterns of relocated seismicity. Regions with fewer than Figure 3. Map of the relocated seismicity (TableS1), including the projected seismicity on a W–E profile and three N–S cross-sections. The zones described in the results section are depicted in blue (a), green (b), and red (c). The maps show the earthquake focal mechanism associated with the highest magnitude event since the year 2000. The P4 profile includes all the relocated seismicity data. The P1, P2, and P3 profiles illustrate the seismicity in C-1, C-2, and C-3 red boxes, respectively, and their southern continuation. 19449194, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023TC007956 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [12/02/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Tectonics MADARIETA-TXURRUKA ETAL. 10.1029/2023TC007956 7 of 24 five recorded earthquakes have been excluded from consideration. Consequently, the Internal Zones of the Betic Cordillera and the Zafarraya Polje were excluded from this analysis. The western Granada Basin (1) coincides with an area of relatively high seismic activity. The Sierra Gorda massif (2) stands out due to its N–S striking thrust faults and its comparatively low seismicity. The Salinas (3) and Western Ranges (4) regions are associated with a zone of elevated seismic activity, which extends farther westward from the NE–SW and NW–SE striking mountain ranges that characterize the southern area (4). This region has been divided into two zones due to Figure 4. Earthquake focal mechanisms (EFMs) and reduced stress tensor. (a) EFMs used to compute the stress tensors, also shown in TableS2. Note that some earthquakes present different focal mechanism solutions. (b) Reduced stress tensor obtained for the 6 seismotectonic regions defined in the crust (delineated by light red lines) and mantle (number 7). R: indicates the axial ratio defined by R=(σ2−σ3)/(σ1−σ3). The detailed results can be found in Table S3. 19449194, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023TC007956 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [12/02/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Tectonics MADARIETA-TXURRUKA ETAL. 10.1029/2023TC007956 8 of 24 different geological features and to ensure that the Iznajar 1998 seismic series, located in the northernmost region (3) and marked by strike-slip faulting (Carmona etal.,2009), does not exert any influence on the southern region (4). The Torcal Shear Zone (5) constitutes a transpressional region that has undergone relatively low seismic activity. Finally, the northwesternmost region (6) is affected by less deformation. The GNSS data were acquired from a survey mode network installed in 2004 around the Zafarraya Polje (Gil etal.,2005) in order to quantify the current deformation related to the VZF (Figure5). Sites 811, 812, and 816 are located in the hanging wall block of the fault, over limestones of the External Zones. In contrast, sites 810, 813, 814, and 815 are located in the footwall block. Both 810 and 813 lie over dolostone and limestone of the External Zones, and sites 814 and 815 over marbles of the Internal Zones. Every GNSS site consists of a concrete pillar anchored to solid rock with a forced centering device on top.The first survey was carried out in 2004 (Borque etal.,2005), the second in 2010 (Ruano etal.,2011), and subsequently in 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, Figure 5. Geologic map of the Zafarraya Polje and Sierra de Alhama modified from Elorza etal.(1978) and Sanz de Galdeano(2013) including velocity vectors of the Zafarraya survey mode Global Navigation Satellite System network (Table1). In red, with respect to fixed Eurasia. In blue, with respect to the fixed site 810. Stereonets (Smith lower hemisphere) of the faults (red) and joints (blue). Isopach curves are taken from García-Jerez etal.(2006). 19449194, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023TC007956 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [12/02/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Tectonics MADARIETA-TXURRUKA ETAL. 10.1029/2023TC007956 9 of 24 and 2018 (FigureS1). During the 2004 and 2010 campaigns, seven Leica Geosystem GX1230 receivers and LEIAX1202 antennas were used for measuring.ing During subsequent campaigns in 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2018, seven Leica Geosystem AR10 receivers and LEIAR10 antennas were employed. In each campaign, all sites were observed continuously over four to five days, achieving a GNSS data record of 72hr in 2010, 2012, and 2013 and 96hr in 2014, 2015, and 2018 (FigureS1). All data were processed with the GipsyX software (Jet Propulsion Laboratory; Bertiger etal.,2020) using the PPP method. Position time series in the North and East components and absolute velocities were computed in the IGS14 reference frame. Finally, two residual velocity fields were estimated with respect to a fixed Eurasia frame and site 810 (Table1). Fieldwork was conducted to complement previous data (Figures5 and6). To elucidate the structural characteristics of the Sierra Alhama fold, we conducted bedding measurements in the basement of the External Zones. Detailed observations were made on scarps and surfaces of the Ventas de Zafarraya Fault –encompassing their orientation, dip, grooves, and striae orientations (Figures6c and6d)– to assess recent activity and fault kinematics. In addition, measurements of joints were made near the town of Ventas de Zafarraya (Figure5). These surface data are complemented by previous geological observations (Elorza etal.,1978; Reicherter etal.,2003; Sanz de Galdeano,2013) and geophysical prospecting data to provide insights into the shallow and deep structure of Zafarraya Polje and its surroundings (García-Jerez etal.,2006; Fernández-García & Ruano,2016; Ollero Robles & García García,1984. To determine the shallow features and recent activity of the fault system, four ERT profiles were also deployed to measure resistivity and induced polarization (Figure7). ERT images subsurface structures by measuring electrical resistivity, which helps to ERT maps subsurface structures with resistivity contrasts by measuring electrical resistivity, which helps to identify lithological changes associated with faults or the presence of fluids within fault zones. Induced polarization reveals faults when clays are present (Šumi,1965) or metallic conductive mineral concentrations occur (Bleil,1953). The induced polarization anomalies calculated along the ERT profiles are only significant in ERT-2; therefore, Figure7 shows only this result. The southern ones (ERT-1 and ERT-2), are located over the VZF, whereas ERT-3 extends perpendicular to the N–S striking West Polje Fault in the western boundary of the basin. In turn, ERT-4 crosses a NW–SE striking fault. The profiles were acquired through the ABEM Terrameter SAS 4000 system using a 4-channel multiple gradient electrode array and applying GRAD4LX8 and GRAD4S8 protocols (ABEM,2006) with 1m electrode spacing. Inversion relied on the standard least squares model for constraining inversion with the Res2Dinv code (v 3.64, Geotomo Inc.; Loke,2019). 3. Results 3.1. Relocation of Seismicity The relocated seismic data of the study area since 2000 reveal seismicity reaching only magnitude mbLg 4.1 (TableS1). Three zones were distinguished (Figure3). On the one hand, the entire southern band (A-Blue) — corresponding to the Internal Zones— shows hardly any crustal seismicity. On the other hand, the northwestern zone (B-Green) shows some seismicity reaching depths of 20–30km eastward. The north-northeastern zone Sites Coordinates Velocity Uncertainty Residual velocity (Iberia) Residual velocity (site 810) Long. (°E) Lat. (°N) East North East North East North East North 810 −4.120 36.956 17.6 16.6 ±0.3 ±0.5 −2.3 0.1 fixed 811 −4.125 36.987 18.0 16.1 ±0.3 ±0.3 −2.0 −0.4 0.3 −0.5 812 −4.148 36.977 17.3 15.9 ±0.4 ±0.5 −2.6 −0.6 −0.3 −0.7 813 −4.155 36.946 18.0 17.7 ±0.4 ±0.6 −1.9 1.2 0.4 1.1 814 −4.139 36.934 17.7 17.3 ±0.3 ±0.6 −2.2 0.8 0.1 0.7 815 −4.099 36.929 17.3 16.7 ±0.3 ±0.4 −2.7 0.1 −0.4 0.0 816 −4.104 36.977 18.0 16.9 ±0.4 ±0.4 −1.9 0.3 0.4 0.2 Table 1 East and North Absolute Velocities, Uncertainties, and Residual Velocities (mm·yr −1) With Respect to the Eurasia Fixed Reference Frame and With Respect to a Stable 810 Site 19449194, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023TC007956 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [12/02/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Tectonics MADARIETA-TXURRUKA ETAL. 10.1029/2023TC007956 16 of 24 Figure 9. Tectonic model of the central Betic Cordillera. (a) Sketch of the westward-directed gravitational collapse model of the central Betic Cordillera. (b & (c) Global Navigation Satellite System data from Galindo-Zaldívar etal.(2015) and major structures. (b) Green arrows represent velocity rates relative to the fixed NEVA: LOJA and PALM show an almost radial extension. (c) Red arrows represent velocity rates with respect to fixed MALA: PALM shows NE–SW shortening. LOJA shows minor N–S lengthening and relative sinistral motion. (d) Proposed 3D model for the central Betic Cordillera. The green colored zone indicates an area affected by extension, the solid red indicates the proposed shortening front, and the light red marks regional compression. Stress tensors are projected and include those determined by Madarieta-Txurruka etal.(2021). Intermediate (50–70) seismicity from IGN (National Geographic Institute,2023) is shown above the subducting slab. V.E.: Vertical Exaggeration. EZ: External Zones; IZ: Internal Zones; FU: Flysch Unit; VaC: Variscan Crust. 19449194, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023TC007956 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [12/02/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Tectonics MADARIETA-TXURRUKA ETAL. 10.1029/2023TC007956 17 of 24 fronts can also form in nearly fixed-boundary collapses. The crustal heterogeneities under the detachments act as buttresses (e.g., Boyer,1995; Mitra,1997) and decrease the extension rate, generating localized shortening. 4.3. Implications for the Source of Destructive Earthquakes: The 1884 Andalusian Earthquake The VZF is the main active fault near the epicenter of the 1884 Andalusian earthquake (Reicherter etal.,2003). According to the Quaternary-Active Faults Database of Iberia (QAFI,2023), a 20km long active fault is considered as the Ventas the Zafarraya Fault, capable to host Mw 6.5–6.6 earthquakes (Wells & Coppersmith,1994). Udías and Muñoz(1979) point to a rupture area related to the Andalusian earthquake that is as long as the fault. However, Reicherter etal.(2003) describe two segments as the surface rupture (Douvillé,1906), separated by a segment affected by NE–SW and NW–SE striking extensional cracks (López Arroyo etal.,1980). The model proposed here suggests that the VZF in the western segment may be active due to fold development in the Sierra de Alhama, while the central segment in the eastern Zafarraya Polje is currently inactive as no deformation is recorded (Figure5). The 6km long segment in the western Zafarraya Polje could host a Mw 5.9 earthquake, considering its surface length (Wells & Coppersmith,1994), significantly lower than the Mw 6.5 estimated for the 1884 earthquake (Mezcua etal.,2004). The eastern segment, in the northern foothills of Sierra Tejeda, is a 10km long segment that could host a Mw 6.2 earthquake. If both segments were activated simultaneously, the earthquake could reach Mw 6.4, like the estimated magnitude. Meanwhile, the 4km long central segment, which is affected by extensional cracks, could be activated at depth without causing significant rupture at the surface. In this context, the 1884 Andalusian earthquake would been triggered by the activation of at least the bending-moment fault segment of the western Zafarraya Polje, the segment associated with the collapse of the northern limb of Sierra Tejeda (Reicherter etal.,2003; Ruano etal.,2004) and probably by the central segments connecting them at depth. Even if surface ruptures are observed, deeper sources should be considered given the assigned hypocentral depth of 10–20km (Udías & Muñoz,1979). Fold-related faults can be activated by events in basal detachments, as occurred in the El Asnam thrust, Algeria (Meghraoui & Doumaz,1996). The new data indicate that the extensional system of the Granada Basin is linked to the compressional front through a detachment reaching a depth of about 15km in the area of the earthquake hypocenter. Both the Sierra de Alhama-Zafarraya Polje area and the Sierra Tejeda antiform are probably rooted there; their development would accordingly be controlled by this detachment. In this context, the main event could have occurred in the detachment and produced related events on the surface faults, generating the described rupture zones. In contrast, detachment can work by creep, without generating relevant earthquakes, until it destabilizes the surface area and activates the segments described above. From the perspective of seismic hazard, bending-moment faults are structures that need to be carefully taken into consideration. New data suggest that these faults can constitute the main seismogenic faults of the region, which, temporally accompanied by other processes, such as gravitational collapse, can lead to moderate earthquakes with magnitudes reaching close to Mw 6.5, as seen in the 1884 Andalusian earthquake. Furthermore, slip on regional deep detachments, either during seismic events or due to creep, could facilitate the activity of these shallow normal faults (Meghraoui & Doumaz,1996). 4.4. Geodynamic Implications The extensional system within the Granada Basin, affecting mainly the upper crust (as shown in Figures3, 4 and9) (Galindo-Zaldívar etal.,2015; Madarieta-Txurruka etal.,2021), is integrated into the broader context of the Eurasian-Nubian convergence. The suggested compressional front of this system is located near the transition zone between the central and western Betic Cordillera. Deep geophysical data (Banda & Ansorge,1980; Banda etal.,1993; Díaz etal.,2016; Galindo-Zaldívar etal.,1997), indicating crustal thickening of up to 40km beneath the central Betic Cordillera, as well as the lack of intermediate-depth seismic activity in this area, suggest that subduction is not currently active in this area. Mancilla etal. (2015; among others) propose that slab-tearing processes detached the subducting slab and led to rapid uplift and exhumation of the shallowest portion of the slab located above the tearing, effectively doubling the crust (Platt etal.,2006). In contrast, the western Betic Cordillera is characterized by convergence (González-Castillo etal.,2015b; Ruiz-Constán etal.,2009). Intermediate-depth seismicity beneath the Malaga coast (Figure9d) (Santos-Bueno etal.,2019) and seismic tomography (Blanco & Spakman,1993) indicate an ongoing subduction process (Morales etal.,1999; Pedrera etal.,2011) involving 19449194, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023TC007956 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [12/02/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Tectonics MADARIETA-TXURRUKA ETAL. 10.1029/2023TC007956 18 of 24 an E–W to NE–SW striking slab attached to the continental margin that dips southeastward. Furthermore, seismological data indicate that rollback may be occurring during subduction, and that the slab could be currently detaching westward beneath Málaga (e.g., Meighan etal.,2013; Ruiz-Constán etal.,2011), which is consistent with the mantle stress tensor #7 computed here (Figure4). This tensor depicts an N–S trending σ1 (Table S3) with an inclination of 43ºN, implying a radial extension (R=0.18) subparallel to the slab. Uplift in the central Betic Cordillera related to the exhumation of the metamorphic complexes (Braga etal.,2003; Reinhardt etal.,2007), as seen in the Nevado-Filábride Complex, in the Internal Zone, would explain gravitational collapse into surrounding areas (Rey etal.,2001) along extensional detachments (Galindo-Zaldívar etal.,1996; Madarieta-Txurruka etal.,2021). However, the extension is not perpendicular to the mountain range (Rey etal.,2001) or even radial with respect to the most uplifted area, Sierra Nevada (Dewey,1988). On the one hand, this could be due to the interaction of the NW–SE plate convergence and the active rollback, mainly registered in the western Betic Cordillera (González-Castillo etal.,2015a), which produces the highest rate of subsidence and thinning in the Western Alborán Basin (Do Couto etal.,2016; Torné etal.,2000), facilitating collapse toward the W–SW (Figures1 and9a). On the other hand, active Eurasia-Nubia compression (DeMets etal.,2010; McClusky etal.,2003; Nocquet & Calais,2003) thickens the crust to over 30km north of Sierra Nevada (Pedrera etal.,2020), preventing northward collapse. This would facilitate a lateral extrusion (Ratschbacher etal.,1991) to the west through a boundary formed by dextral strike-slip faults (Galindo-Zaldívar etal.,2015; Stich etal.,2003) north of Sierra Gorda and the Granada Basin (Figure9a). Finally, the westward migration of the gravitational collapse system since the Miocene (proposed here) is consistent with both westward rollback of the Gibraltar Arc (e.g., González-Castillo etal.,2015a; Rosenbaum etal.,2002; Van Hinsbergen etal.,2014; Zeck & Whitehouse,1999) and east-to-west slab tearing (e.g., Chertova etal.,2014; Garcia-Castellanos & Villaseñor,2011; Mancilla etal.,2015). Regions where plate convergence and subduction with rollback interact, such as Mediterranean orogenic arcs (e.g., Van Hinsbergen etal.,2014; Wortel & Spakman,2000), the Banda Arc in eastern Indonesia (Pownall etal.,2013; Spakman & Hall,2010), or the Scotia Arc between South America and Antarctica (Barker,2001; Morales-Ocaña etal.,2023; van de Lagemaat etal.,2021), are conducive to the development of extensional detachment systems. The uplift of certain areas, attributed to crustal thickening resulting from thrust and fold development (Tricart etal.,1994), shear zones (Morales-Ocaña etal.,2023), and/or slab tearing (Delph etal.,2017; Parera-Portell etal.,2023), occurs concurrently with subsidence, including the formation of back-arc basins (Balázs etal.,2022; Larter etal.,2003). These geodynamic phenomena occur in close proximity, facilitating the orogenic collapse of the upper crust from uplifted regions to subsided ones. In general, the evolution of extensional systems in these arcuate orogens varies depending on the involved geodynamic processes. While the extensional system in the central Betic Cordillera migrates in the same direction of the Gibraltar Arc, in other settings this is not the case. In the Banda Arc, the extension's migration is perpendicular to the subduction's migration (Pownall etal.,2013), and in the Scotia Arc, it is parallel but in the opposite direction (Morales-Ocaña etal.,2023). Furthermore, the model proposed here suggests that gravitational collapse can migrate, as seen during the Cenozoic in the Great Basin (Axen etal.,1993) or in the Tibetan Plateau, Himalaya (Guo etal.,2018), if the lithospheric processes generating them migrate in turn. 5. Conclusions The normal VZF, responsible for the Mw 6.5 1884 catastrophic Andalusian earthquake, developed in the context of an active central Betic Cordillera in the framework of the Africa-Nubia convergence. The Zafarraya survey mode GNSS network determines that the development of the Sierra de Alhama-Zafarraya Polje area is related to a maximum NNE–SSW shortening of 2mm/yr instead of the expected extension related to the normal VZF. The discrepancy between geological and GNSS data suggests the formation of the VZF is due to the bending-moment extension and collapse of the outer arc of the active Sierra de Alhama antiform. Its activity may be conditioned by the displacement on the basal detachment of the extensional system of the Granada Basin. The Granada extensional system accommodates the W to SW-directed gravitational collapse driven by active uplift in the central Betic Cordillera and subsidence of the Western Alboran Basin due to the active rollback in the western Betic Cordillera. Seismicity indicates that the basal detachment of this system extends into the Sierra de Alhama-Zafarraya area. This area is part of an active compressional front extending from west of Sierra 19449194, 2024, 2, Downloaded from https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023TC007956 by Readcube (Labtiva Inc.), Wiley Online Library on [12/02/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License Tectonics MADARIETA-TXURRUKA ETAL. 10.1029/2023TC007956 19 of 24 Gorda to Sierra Tejeda in the SW of the Granada Basin. Development of the compressional front of the extensional collapse was favored by crustal heterogeneities and can be divided into two sectors. The northwestern one, located in the External Zones, is affected by thrusting. The southern sector, in the Internal Zones, is affected by folding and buttressing produced by a high-density crustal body. The normal seismogenic VZF, having developed in the compressional front of the extensional system of the Granada Basin, constitutes a natural case study that sheds novel light on the complex interaction of extension and compression, faults, and folds, taking place in active orogens. A fuller understanding of the heterogeneous behavior of active tectonics driven by inherited structures is essential to ensure progress in future seismic hazard studies. Data Availability Statement Seismicity data can be found in the IGN online database (National Geographic Institute, 2023). The relocated seismicity data is available in TableS1 and are archived into Zenodo repository (Madarieta-Txurruka, González-Castillo, etal.,2023). Earthquake focal mechanisms are compiled in TableS2, sourced from both the literature and the IGN online database (SMT,2023). Stress tensor calculation parameters are available in Table S3. Position time series of Zafarraya GNSS network are provided in FigureS1 and archived into Zenodo repository (Madarieta-Txurruka, González-Castillo, etal.,2023). Additionally, the DTMs used in geological maps were obtained from the CNIG (IGN) repository (CNIG,2023). References ABEM. (2006). Instruction manual terrameter SAS 4000/SAS 1000. ABEM Instrument AB. Alonso-Chaves, F. M., & Orozco, M. (2007). Evolución tectónica de las Sierras de Tejeda y Almijara: Colapso extensional y exhumación de áreas metamórficas en el dominio de Alborán (Cordilleras Béticas). Revista de la Sociedad Geologica de Espana, 20(3–4), 211–228. Amrouch, K., Lacombe, O., Bellahsen, N., Daniel, J. M., & Callot, J. P. (2010). Stress and strain patterns, kinematics and deformation mechanisms in a basement-cored anticline: Sheep Mountain Anticline, Wyoming. Tectonics, 29(1). https://doi.org/10.1029/2009TC002525 Axen, G. J., Taylor, W. J., & Bartley, J. M. (1993). 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